biography

Review: Unlikely General

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Cover image of "Unlikely General" by Mary Stockwell

Unlikely General: “Mad” Anthony Wayne and the Battle for America, Mary Stockwell. Yale University Press (ISBN: 9780300251876) 2018.

Summary: A biography of “Mad” Anthony Wayne centered on his successful campaign to defeat Native tribes in the Northwest Territory.

For three years I lived one block from the Anthony Wayne Trail (part of US 24) in Toledo, Ohio. I knew little more than that it was the fastest way to downtown Toledo from our apartment, and that Anthony Wayne had fought against Native tribes in that part of northwest Ohio, and that Fort Wayne, southwest on US 24, was named after him.

Mary Stockwell’s biography of Wayne renders a far more complicated portrait of this man and explains why he succeeded where others before him failed on what was then the northwest frontier of the young country. Wayne had been one of Washington’s “warhorses” during the War for Independence. He led successful campaigns at Ticonderoga, Germantown, Stony Point (a signature victory against a British strong point), and after Yorktown, in Georgia, leading to the disbanding of British forces in the South.

Yet Washington was ambivalent about him. He reminds me of Grant. He was an aggressive fighter in contrast to the more cautious Washington, sometimes exposing himself to risks. Stockwell describes this ambivalence. Wayne did all asked of him by Washington and would do more. Yet others advanced past him. Stockwell interleaves Wayne’s Revolutionary War career with the account of Wayne’s campaign in the Ohio country of the Northwest Territory. By doing so, we meet a general at once an aggressive fighter and disciplinarian, yet one who struggled with self doubts.

Like Grant, Wayne struggled with what to do when he was not fighting. He endangered his estate in Pennsylvania with bad land acquisitions in the South. He briefly served in Congress. He at least flirted with an affair. He drank, suffered from old war injuries, and gout.

Yet American affairs were going badly. The British refused to settle a string of forts in Ohio and what is now Michigan. They enlisted a confederacy of tribes to fight for them in an effort to prevent settlement north of the Ohio River despite an agreement in 1785 by some tribes to allow settlers to settle in the southern half of what is now Ohio. In 1791, General Arthur St. Clair who was also governor of the Northwest Territory, was routed in a battle against Little Turtle near Fort Recovery in western Ohio near the present Indiana border. General Harmar, who had preceded him also was defeated in 1790.

Stockwell recounts how now-President Washington, after rejecting other candidates called Wayne out of retirement in the spring of 1792. She narrates the formation of a new, larger force, the Legion of the United States and Wayne’s move to Pittsburgh, at the head of the Ohio River, to recruit the army.

Both in his initial training camp in Legionville, near Pittsburgh, and later in Greenville, in western Ohio, Wayne built a fighting force for a different kind of warfare, marked by vigilance, discipline, and drills. Other troops had fled under fire. He wanted his to hold or advance and to know what to do. He became known by native scouts as “the General that does not sleep.”

Stockwell recounts the adversity he endured, from delayed supplies to desertions of Kentucky volunteers. Worse was the covert betrayal of General James Wilkinson, his second in command, who was secretly feeding negative reports to congressmen about Wayne and undercutting supply efforts. It later came out that he was collaborating with a foreign power, Spain.

By the summer of 1794, Wayne was ready to advance north. Natives fled ahead of him as he marched north to the Maumee River, building Fort Defiance at the junction of the Auglaize and Maumee Rivers. He then marched downstream toward the British Fort Miami. The Native tribes of the Confederacy sought refuge but the British, not wanting open war with the United States, shut them out, betraying their alliance. This led to the decisive Battle of Fallen Timbers, where Wayne defeated the Confederacy on the battlefield. He subsequently seized a center of the Confederacy, Kekionga, which he transformed into Fort Wayne.

Stockwell shows how Wayne transitioned from winning on the battlefield to wooing tribal leaders who had been abandoned by the British. He offered a settlement with minor adjustments of the 1785 agreement, allowing tribes to remain in northern Ohio while Americans could settle in the south. The Treaty of Greenville was agreed to in 1795. The location of my home in central Ohio is on land ceded by this treaty. Following the treaty, Wayne supplied food and farming supplies to the Native people.

Sadly, Wayne’s wife, from whom he was estranged, died during this campaign. His daughter and son were as well, although he re-established a relationship with the latter. A year later, Wayne was dead, from his old war wounds. Stockwell portrays a man good at one thing, winning battles and securing territory for his country.

While Stockwell offers an illuminating portrayal of Wayne, and one that portrays him magnanimous in peace with tribal leaders, she treads lightly on the larger issues at stake in America’s advance on tribal lands. She mostly focuses on the British exploitation of the tribes. There is little about their displacement from eastern lands. Nor does she discuss how quickly settlers moved north of the treaty line, displacing the tribes further west after the defeat of Tecumseh. By 1803, Ohio as it is presently configured, achieved statehood.

She observes Wayne’s apprehension of the threat the British and their tribal allies posed on the American frontier. Part of it was that the British had not honored their agreements from the Treaty of Paris in 1783 and were using the tribes for both trade benefits and to hold onto what was no longer theirs. But there seems to be no questioning of the fact that all of the conflict was over who would control these tribal lands, assuming the eventual displacement of Native tribes, first in southern Ohio, then all of the state, after Wayne’s death.

What Stockwell does do is establish Wayne as one of our outstanding early military leaders, despite Washington’s uncertainties. We also see a man whose love of country left little room for family. Like Grant, he was really good at one thing–fighting.

Review: J. Gresham Machen

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Cover image of "J. Gresham Machen" by Ned B. Stonehouse

J. Gresham Machen: A Biographical Memoir, Ned B. Stonehouse. Banner of Truth Trust (ISBN: 9781848718746) 2019 (First published in 1954).

Summary: A biographical memoir chronicling Machen’s evangelical faith and scholarship, first at Princeton and then at Westminster.

J. Gresham Machen was arguably one of the most significant thinkers in twentieth century evangelicalism. He was an exacting scholar and staunch defender of an evangelical understanding of the Westminster Confession of the Presbyterian Church. Following in the steps of the Hodges and Warfield, he sought to defend the stance of Princeton as in its orthodox adherence to a Reformed and Evangelical faith and worked against measures that liberalized the seminary. Ultimately, his ministerial credentials were revoked and he led a group of scholars to form Westminster Theological Seminary, and subsequently, the Orthodox Presbyterian Church.

Ned B. Stonehouse was a student under Machen and one of the founding faculty, along with Machen, of Westminster. This “biographical memoir” has the character of an appreciative, though thorough, account of Machen’s life. He extensively cites Machen’s writing, including his extensive correspondence, especially with his mother. From this 600 page biography, I simply want to note some aspects of Machen’s life that were striking.

A godly family. His parents were devout yet created a culturally rich rather than stultifying environment. When Machen struggled both with intellectual doubts and uncertainties about calling, his father was unstinting in his personal and financial support, expressing confidence in his son’s judgement. Equally, his mother stood by him throughout his life, prayed constantly, and eagerly engaged even Machen’s scholarly works.

A faith tested in the wilderness. Following his studies at Princeton, he received a fellowship to study at the theological centers in Germany. While he reveled in the scholarship, he also wrestled with his faith in the face of the liberal scholarship he encountered from impressive theologians. Because of this, he delayed ordination and an appointment at Princeton, working as a lecturer while he pressed into the questions his time in Europe had raised, eventually coming back to a full embrace of the faith as expressed in the Westminster Confession. I believe it was this that made him so effective, first as a teacher, and then as an advocate as that liberal faith hit the American church.

A wise mentor. In William Armstrong, a Princeton professor under whom Machen studied and who recruited him. he was blessed with a mentor who patiently walked with Machen through his theological and vocational struggles. Armstrong remained supportive and encouraging while never dismissing Machen’s qualms. Likewise, he found ways for Machen to teach without needing to pursue ordination until he was ready.

A balance of grace and truth. Machen is known for being unafraid to challenge institutions that wavered theologically. Yet he was a man of great personal compassion. Stonehouse offers the example of his care for a converted alcoholic, at great personal cost, as well as his liberal generosity in care for others.

A careful scholar. His magnum opus was his work The Virgin Birth of Christ. Along with Christianity and Liberalism, a great work of public scholarship, both works remain in print to this day. Likewise, his New Testament Greek for Beginners served as a standard seminary text for many years. Most of his works are still in print.

A courageous advocate. Machen opposed Princeton’s board reorganization, which would (and did) weaken the theological stance of the seminary. Likewise, he challenged the theological drift within Presbyterian missions. It was this that led to revoking his ordination.

Ned Stonehouse’s biography of J. Gresham Machen leaves me wondering about our contemporary situation. The American church seems more fragmented than ever and theological orthodoxy less of a concern than ever. A reading of this work at very least ought serve as a reminder of what it means to be faithful in life and doctrine.

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Disclosure of Material Connection: I received a complimentary copy of this book from the publisher for review.

Review: Longstreet

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Cover image of "Longstreet" by Elizabeth R. Varon

Longstreet: The Confederate General Who Defied the South, Elizabeth R. Varon. Simon & Schuster (ISBN: 9781982148270) 2023.

Summary: From Lee’s “old war horse” to the Radical Republican who defied the “Lost Cause” and fought to vindicate his war record.

James Longstreet was a product of the South. Although West Point-trained with his good friend Ulysses S. Grant, when war came, he resigned his commission to fight for the South. At the heart of this was the defense of slavery. He was a slaveholder. Therefore, his post-war transformation to a Republican and radical reconstructionist was stunning then, and still demands explanation. In this new biography, Elizabeth R. Varon explores the war-time record of Lee’s “old war horse” and his defiance of advocates of the “Lost Cause” to support Republican Reconstruction efforts including a whole panoply of Black civil rights. Perceived as a traitor to the South, this led to a defense of his war record, and later, efforts to reconcile with his enemies.

The first part of the book concerns his military record, including his major triumphs at the second Bull Run, at Fredericksburg, and at Chickamauga. Then there was Gettysburg. He believed in fighting from strong defensive positions from which counterattacks could be launched against weakened foes. At Gettysburg, Longstreet wanted to move between the Union left and Washington but Lee wouldn’t permit this. On the second day, it took Longstreet far longer than expected to get in place to launch an attack on the Union left, including the badly positioned Dan Sickles and the thinly occupied Little Round Top. On the third day he vigorously disagreed with Lee on the frontal assault on the Union center. In the end, he obeyed, with the disastrous results he feared. At the time, Lee assumed full responsibility for the loss. Only after the war would recriminations come against Longstreet.

After his victory at Chickamauga and the later inglorious end to the campaign in eastern Tennessee, Longstreet rejoined Lee. Wounded in the Wilderness Campaign by friendly fire, he rejoined Lee after recovering for the final defense of Petersburg and Richmond and was with him at Appomattox. Until then, he fought unstintingly for the South. But when his old friend Grant offered generous conditions of parole to Longstreet and his troops, the transformation began. Indeed, a theme running through this narrative is the important role Grant played in his post-war transformation.

Subsequently, supporting the Republicans, he lauded the passage of the 15th Amendment and even helped form a multiracial Louisiana State Militia that included Black officers. As a result, Longstreet was considered a traitor and the Crescent City White League attempted a coup against the governor in the Canal Street Coup. Longstreet’s militia performed poorly and only federal troops preserved the government.

He moved to Georgia and served in various civil service posts, including ambassador to Turkey, and later on, as railroad commissioner. His hope was to advocate from within Republican governments for the South. Longstreet believed that cooperating with Reconstruction could help the economic development of the South. Meanwhile, he faced increasing attacks upon his military record, particularly at Gettysburg, where he was blamed for the defeat. As Reconstruction receded, he sought ways, without recanting his post-war commitments, to reconcile with his fellow Southerners, notably Jefferson Davis. But through memoirs, and his widow’s efforts after death, the fight continued to uphold his reputation. Yet even to this day, the debates continue.

Varon offers a sympathetic account of Longstreet, both militarily, and in the Reconstruction and post-Reconstruction years. I suspect that those who still adhere to the “Lost Cause” and to critical narratives of his actions at Gettysburg won’t buy it. But I found this a compelling account of a man who changed his mind and acted with courage. He acted, in sympathy with his influential friend Grant, for a more inclusive vision for the country, including the South. Sadly, we have not fully realized that courageous vision even yet.

Review: Invisible Giants

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Cover image of Invisible Giants by Herbert H. Harwood, Jr.

Invisible Giants, Herbert H. Harwood, Jr. Indiana University Press (ISBN: 9780253341631) 2003.

Summary: The story of two brothers from Cleveland who built a rail and real estate empire centered on Cleveland’s Terminal Tower.

Terminal Tower. The main Higbee’s store. Tower City. The Rapid and its Shaker Heights line. Shaker Heights and Shaker Square. Railroads. All of these are part of my memories of the years we lived in the Cleveland area. But until I read this book I knew little of the two retiring but visionary brothers responsible, at least in part, for all of these.

Oris Paxton and Mantis James Van Sweringen grew up in poverty and failed at a number of businesses until they began to build a real estate and rail empire based in Cleveland. It began with a vision of a suburban community in east of Cleveland, a former Shaker settlement. They started slowly, acquiring options on a few lots. Then they realized that for buyers to be attracted to the suburbs, commute times to downtown Cleveland needed to be as short as possible. So they acquired right of way and started building tracks and stations for a rapid transit.

Over time, this meant connecting to railroad right of ways, and through East Coast ties led to acquisition of a railroad, the Nickel Plate Railroad, running from Buffalo to Chicago. Railroads, transit and a hub centered in downtown Cleveland led to development of the Cleveland Union Terminal Complex. This included a rail terminal, traction terminal, an office tower, hotel, bank, department store, and the city’s main post office. In an era of rail consolidation, this led to a fierce competition to buy up other railroads. In the end, this resulted in a railroad empire that nearly extended coast to coast.

This biography traces the complex financial and organizational operations, including the creation of holding companies, that gave the brothers control while having a relatively small personal stake, using various stocks, bonds, and loans, all of it premised on an increasingly profitable business. Holding companies also enabled them to operate free of Interstate Commerce Commission scrutiny. And throughout the 1920’s, it worked, culminating in the grand opening of the Cleveland Union Terminal complex in 1930.

By that time, the stock market had crashed, and with it, both rail traffic and real estate investment. These were the two pillars of their empire. Because their holdings were so highly leveraged in a collapsing market, it was a herculean feat to keep it afloat. Thus the latter part of the book is an account of how that effort broke their health. First Mantis, then Oris died. Ironically for Oris, it was during a train ride to New York to meet with bankers.

It seemed to me an incredibly sad story. Neither brother ever married, sharing a bedroom in a mansion. They had few outside interests. The hubris that drove them to build a transcontinental rail network may have been the overreach that brought them down. Specifically, the Missouri-Pacific offset profits in other parts. Likewise, the location on sloping terrain of the Cleveland Union Terminal, and the number of buildings added to their expenses. Even so, they might have made it were it not for the Depression. But in retrospect, the financing of their empire seemed like a house of cards. But in the 1920’s, everyone thought them geniuses.

Then or now, many Clevelanders knew little of them. Yet they left Cleveland some gems, including Terminal Tower, Shaker Square, one of the early shopping centers, and Shaker Heights with it wide boulevards, attractive homes, and transit lines. This biography is a valuable account for those interested both in Cleveland history and railroad history. On the latter count, it includes numerous photos of rail stock. The brothers may have been invisible giants but they left visible works of enduring value.

Review: A Prairie Faith

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Cover image of "A Prairie Faith" by John J. Fry

A Prairie: The Religious Life of Laura Ingalls Wilder (Library of Religious Biography), John J. Fry (Foreword by Mark A. Noll. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (ISBN: 9780802876287) 2024.

Summary: The religious life of Laura Ingalls Wilder drawn from her books and manuscripts, other writings and the places she lived.

I did not discover the Little House books until reading them aloud to our son. Just thinking of that brings good memories of the three of us snuggled on the hunter green sofa bed in our guest room, working our way through the books. I particular remember reading The Long Winter through a particularly cold and long winter, and being thrilled by Almanzo’s daring journey to bring food back to the isolated small town. We loved the affection within the family and the Christian values their lives exemplified and suspected these were important to the author.

That is the conclusion held by John J. Fry, the author of this religious biography of Laura Ingalls Wilder. He maintains that for Wilder, Christian faith was important but not central. Throughout her life, there is evidence of regular personal Bible reading and prayer. Where there was opportunity, she was in weekly attendance at church, but refrained from membership. In many ways, her outlook was more stoic than Christian.

Using her memoirs, manuscripts and publications as well tracing her life through the different places she lived, Fry offers a chronological account of her life. While the focus is on the religious influences in her life and evidence for her religious beliefs, Fry does offer an extensive, if not definitive, account of her life. Until the Wilders settled in Mansfield, Missouri and became established, much of it was life on the move–Kansas, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, the Dakotas, Minnesota again, and Florida.

Surprisingly, before Laura wrote the Little House books, she was, and continued to be, a farm journalist. She translated her own experiences into columns for women in agricultural setting. Then she wrote a memoir, Pioneer Girl, but could not find anyone who wanted to publish it. Working with her daughter Rose, she re-fashioned her account into a series of children’s stories, and with rose’s help found a publisher.

In fact, one of the things we learn, and on which Fry dwells, is the role Rose played in the writing of the books. An accomplished writer herself, Rose reworked Laura’s writing, often “showing” rather than “telling.” This made the books more readable and interesting. In addition, Fry explores the influence of Rose’s religious views on the books, often comparing Laura’s early manuscripts with the published text. Rose was a deist at best, and held a less than friendly view of the church. The record is mixed. Sometimes, she strengthened the portrayal of Christianity. Sometimes the finished manuscripts were more negative. It is striking that Wilder doesn’t mention Jesus in the books, only God. What is clear was that Rose was a significant collaborator in the writing of the books. She deserves more credit than she received.

Fry considers Laura’s religious life in later years. It seems she was less involved in churches and more in fraternal organizations like Eastern Star. But she apparently kept up personal scripture reading. Her faith was characteristic of mainstream moderate Christianity, with a strong emphasis on good works of love for neighbor.

However, she did not extend that love to indigenous peoples. Fry, in assessing the afterlife of her books, notes the criticism of her attitudes toward indigenous peoples. Again, she was typical of her time, which would not be problematic, except for the popularity of her books.

Fry offers an informative and well-paced narrative of Laura’s religious life. This underscores his contention that her faith was important but not central. He also elaborates the collaboration of Rose in the Little House books and the substantial contribution she made to their popularity. None of this detracts from the portrait of the remarkable life of Laura Ingalls Wilder.

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Disclosure of Material Connection: I received a complimentary copy of this book from the publisher for review.

Review: The Printer and Preacher

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Cover image of "The Printer and the Preacher" by Randy Petersen.

The Printer and the Preacher, Randy Petersen. Thomas Nelson (ISBN: 9780718022211) 2015.

Summary: Recounts the story of the unlikely friendship of George Whitefield and Benjamin Franklin.

The printer and the preacher. They were the most unlikely friends. One was an Oxford educated Englishman, thoroughly convinced of the gospel of Christ which he preached, and a man of utter rectitude in his marriage and dealings. The other was a Boston-born grammar school dropout, a deist who expounded a gospel of self help, an industrious printer and civic leader in Philadelphia, and not above sexual flirtation and affairs. George Whitefield and Benjamin Franklin.

Randy Peterson offers a fascinating account of how these disparate figures became friends, a relationship that lasted until 1770 when Whitefield, the younger man, died. Petersen also sketches the lives and impact of these two important figures in early American history. It all began in 1739 when Whitefield established a business relationship with Franklin as the printer of his sermons. This was a huge success for both men, multiplying Whitefield’s influence, already widespread, and profiting Franklin’s printing business. Franklin used his newspaper to report Whitefield’s preaching engagements (as well as his critics).

Over the years, the two became friends, with Whitefield a regular guest in Franklin’s home whenever passing through Philadelphia. Naturally, Whitefield, the evangelist, tried to convert Franklin, who believed in God, but did not believe Jesus to be God but merely a good teacher. But why did Franklin not only tolerate these efforts but regard Whitefield so highly. Among the reasons, was Whitefield’s eloquence and powerful preaching and its impact. This was because Franklin cared deeply about the civic growth of Philadelphia and the colonies, and the transformed lives of converts contributed to the improvement of morals and the advance of the common good. Not only that, Franklin admired Whitefield’s work in founding and supporting an orphanage in Georgia. And he showed concern for Whitefield’s health, weakened by his tireless preaching.

Petersen argues in this book that not only was their friendship mutually beneficial, it was important to America’s beginnings. Printing was the basis of Franklin’s influence, prospered early on by Whitefield’s sermons. Through printing, Franklin established a communications network, connecting the colonies. Whitefield’s preaching throughout the colonies, amplified by Franklin’s efforts, connected the colonies spiritually. In addition, Whitefield operated outside hierarchies and across denominations, a kind of revolution of the spirit that preceded political revolution.

And there is one more important consequence of their friendship identified by Petersen. They modeled religious freedom in their friendship. Franklin deeply respected and advanced Whitefield’s efforts, while never embracing Whitefield’s faith. And Whitefield remained a fast friend of Franklin, respecting his life and benefiting from his civic vision.

Petersen doesn’t offer the definitive biography of either man but probes deeply into this important friendship. And in this, he probes the wonderful opportunity of what can happen when differing parties keep talking and listening in mutual respect, recognizing common interests and respecting differences without requiring compromise. Might they serve as a model for our own day?