Summary: A narratological approach showing that Paul combines implicit and explicit narratives, making him a gifted storyteller.
In my biblical training, we learned to distinguish genres, with the gospels generally consisting of narrative, whereas the letters of Paul were examples of discourse. Of course, neither of this is strictly true. Furthermore, two key New Testament scholars, Richard B. Hays and N. T. Wright pioneered “narrative approaches” to Paul. However, they dismissed the idea of explicit narratives in Paul, observing “narrative substructures (Hayes) or “implicit worldview narratives” (Wright).
Christoph Heilig, while appreciating the pioneering work of these scholars, believes they are wrong in dismissing explicit narratives. He wrote a 600 page dissertation (in German) in 2018. This work follows the organization of the dissertation but is about half the length and in English. He takes the narrative approach a step further, engaging in narratological analysis at a linguistic, grammatological level. While he confirms the use of implicit narrative, he also demonstrates that Paul incorporates a number of explicit narratives.
He begins with a definition of narrative by Kindt and Köppe: “A text is a narrative if and only if it deals with at least two events that are ordered temporally and connected in at least one further meaningful way.” He shows different ways this may be done and discusses the interpretation of story, using biblical examples. Then in chapter two, he turns to the grammar of narration and all the ways events may be linguistically connected. This is not for the faint of heart, running to nearly 100 pages. Grammar nerds will love it, especially Greek grammar nerds.
Chapter three turns to narratives within the wider context of Paul’s works. Explicit narrative connects to a broader frame narrative of Paul’s letters, Chapter four then turns to implicit “protonarratives” in Paul, offering numerous examples of these. Then, in chapter five, he returns to Hays and Wright, confirming aspects of their proposals, and arguing for much closer attention to the way Paul implicitly and explicitly narrates. Particularly, he critiques Wright’s worldview narrative approach as focused more on overarching plot rather than building up from careful analysis of both explicit narrative and implicit protonarratives.
As you may deduce, this is a rigorously technical account, putting forth an argument for a narratological approach to Paul. In addition to contributing to a larger scholarly conversation, Heilig offers resources to enrich the exegesis of Paul’s writing, foundational work, first for commentators, and then for preachers. While it is not easy work, good exegetical work never is. I hope Heilig will build upon and model this work in a commentary (or two!) on one of the Pauline letters.
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Disclosure of Material Connection: I received a complimentary copy of this book from the publisher for review.
Summary: Studies inscriptional evidence in three cities offering a nuanced treatment of the Roman imperial cult.
“Jesus is Lord; Caesar is not.” This statement by a prominent New Testament scholar summarizes the conflict early Christians faced in the Roman empire. In particular, it is assumed that Roman subjects were required to offer sacrifices to the Roman emperors, who were considered divine. Thus Christians faced a dilemma that could lead to alienation at the very least and persecution at the most.
While D. Clint Burnett does not disagree outright with this contention, he believes the actual situation was more complex and varied by the particular city considered. He does so on the basis of the inscriptional evidence from several Roman cities to which the Apostle Paul wrote: Philippi, Thessalonica, and Corinth. Specifically he surveys literary, epigraphic, numismatic, and archaeological evidence.
In his introductory chapter, he offers the example of another city, Gythium. He shows how imperial divine honors were “intertwined with the public lives of Greco-Roman communities and had political, economic, social, and religious components that one cannot neatly separate.” They were public, often part of festivals, and similar in character to worship of other gods. A key motive was to express gratitude for benefactions, not only to divinized deceased rulers but to their living counterparts, even though these often had not yet attained the status of divus. This wasfirst accorded by the Roman Senate, and then adopted by local officials, though this varied by city.
After his introduction, Burnett devotes a chapter each to the evidence from Philippi, Thessalonica, and Corinth. In each chapter, he reviews the archaeological evidence pertaining to the imperial divine honors accorded different Roman emperors. Then, he considers the imperial cultic officials who were priests and benefactors, the location of imperial divine honors, and of what imperial honors consisted. Synthesizing this data, he then considers the implications for early Christians in each city.
Burnett concludes that differences in practice and the character of each city, as well as that of the respective churches resulted in different experiences. In Philippi, where conservative values ruled and imperial divine honors focused on the deceased divi (with the exception of Tiberias), proclamation of Jesus as Lord resulted in imprisonment for some. By contrast, Thessalonica saw their gods working through the Julio-Claudian line to prosper the city. Hence, they granted imperial divine honors to both living and deceased Julio-Claudians. The Thessalonian Christians’ aggressive evangelism jeopardized the harmonious status quo, leading to their mistreatment.
Corinth differed both in bestowing divine honors only posthumously and extended these to non-Julio-Claudians. What sets apart the Corinthian church is that non-believers in Corinth failed to see how counter-cultural were the gospel claims. This had to do with both the Jewish apocalyptic beliefs of Christians and the un-Christian behavior of some. Consequently, they were able to live peaceably in the surrounding culture.
Burnett’s study is valuable in two aspects. First, he helps the reader understand what the Roman imperial cult looked like in these different cities. While there were commonalities, it was anything but uniform. And second, he shows that the Christian experience of the imperial cult was anything but uniform as well. This does not undercut the radical implications of saying “Jesus is Lord.” Rather, Burnett shows that the reception of this message was shaped by local, and not just empire-wide factors. Likewise, the contrast between Philippi and Thessalonica on one hand, and Corinth on the other also underscores the matter of Christian faithfulness in forthright proclamation. The culture will not trouble the church whose proclamation is muted, unclear, and morally compromised.
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Disclosure of Material Connection: I received a complimentary copy of this book from the publisher for review.
Summary: On recent scholarship considering how Paul reconciled monotheism and the divinity of Jesus.
Why did Paul write of Jesus in terms reserved for God? How could a strict monotheistic Jew like Paul call Jesus “Lord” and worship him along with God the Father? While we may take this for granted, for devout Jews, Paul’s language is startling. From where did he get this idea?
Since the early 1900’s, Wilhelm Bousset’s ideas dominated the discussions of these questions. He “argued that early Christian devotion to Jesus originated from a Hellenistic setting where pagan religious influences such as Hellenistic mystery religions were more readily available to and accepted by Jesus-followers” (p.7). Rudolph Bultmann, one of the most prominent New Testament scholars of the twentieth century, promoted Bousset’s contention. The authors of this work engage the work of more recent scholars who argue for the early and Jewish origins of the high Christology of Paul and other early Christians.
Part One: Recent Proposals for Pauline Divine Christology
In part 1, the authors consider the proposals of Richard Bauckham, Larry Hurtado, Chris Tilling, and N. T. Wright. Bauckham proposes a divine identity paradigm. He notes how Paul and other NT writers include Jesus in God’s unique identity as sole creator, sovereign, and worthy of worship, as revealed in the Old Testament. Hurtado focuses in on the corporate worship paradigm. He observes that corporate worship and public devotion is offered to Jesus along with God the Father as clear evidence of Jesus divine status in the eyes of Paul.
Tilling argues for a Christ-relation paradigm. He points to the parallels of language for the relationship of YHWH and Israel in the Old Testament with that used of the relationship of Christ and believers. Finally, Wright sees a YHWH’s return paradigm. Citing the OT promises that YHWH will return to Zion, he argues that Christ’s fulfillment of these promises is Paul’s basis for a high Christology.
After outlining each of the proposals and commending their contribution, the authors note a few problems. One is that the proposals, focused as they are, fail to integrate all the evidence. Relatedly, they also fail to integrate Christology within Paul’s larger theological concerns. Finally, the authors believe these proposals fail to consider Paul’s presuppositions about scripture as divine revelation. This last criticism does not seem warranted, knowing something of the writing of these scholars.
Part Two: Exegetical Analysis for Pauline Divine Christology
The second part of the work offers an exegetical attempt by the authors to formulate Paul’s divine Christology. They treat the relevant Pauline passages under three headings: 1) Jesus, the One Lord of Israel, 2) Jesus, the Incarnate God Who Humbled Himself as Man, and 3) Jesus, the Ruler and Sovereign of Creation and New Creation. They weigh relevant OT and Second Temple influences and engage the work of the previously discussed scholars. A final chapter considers biblical texts that have been used to argue against a high Christology, namely I Corinthians 15:24-28 and Romans 1:3-4.
Afterword and Appendices
The main part of this work reflects the efforts of Chris Bruno and John Lee to summarize and engage recent work demonstrating the early and Jewish roots of Paul’s divine Christology. But the after matter has treasures of its own. First is an afterword by Thomas R. Schreiner develops further the ideas of Jesus’s Lordship, including the scholarship of David Capes, the prayers to Jesus found in Paul, other places where God and Christ are spoken of in parallel, and the trinitarian dimensions to be found in Paul. This last is an important corrective in a work that might be critiqued for a binatarian emphasis!
Appendix I then deals with David Capes and seven other scholars who have also contributed to discussions related to divine Christology in Paul. Appendix II offers a tabular review of the content of the book. Finally, Appendix III is a helpful introduction on Second Temple Jewish writings with a bibliography of additional resources.
Concluding Comments
One of the popular criticisms of Christianity is the idea that “Jesus became God” and that this was a late development that would have been unacceptable for monotheistic Jews. While not a direct response to this critique, this book undercuts that contention. The authors show a recent, significant scholarly consensus for the early and Jewish roots of divine Christology in Paul. In addition, this work offers a helpful survey of that scholarship for those who wish to pursue these questions further. And Bruno and Lee offer their own constructive exegetical Pauline Christology to further the discussion.
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Disclosure of Material Connection: I received a complimentary copy of this book from the publisher for review.
“Saint Paul Writing His Epistles” Attributed to Valentin de Boulogne, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Between 2016 and 2024, I reviewed twenty books at Bob on Books under the category of Pauline studies. A number of the foremost Pauline scholars are represented in reviews at Bob on Books. These include N.T. Wright, Michael Bird, Michael Gorman, John Barclay, Nijay Gupta and others. In recent years, much of the discussion has been shaped by the “New Perspective” on Paul, although works here address other schools of thought, including the apocalyptic Paul. While this is hardly everything written in recent years and many older works are not included, I thought this list might be a time-saver for those searching this site.
A few things on format. I’ve not, for space reasons, included book images on such a lengthy list. They do appear in the full review. Books are listed alphabetically by author (first author in the case of multiple authored books). The link in the title takes you to the publisher’s website for the book (these have been checked and updated where possible). The link at the end titled “review” takes you to the full review. I also include my short review summary.
The Reviews
Paul’s New Perspective, Garwood P. Anderson. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2016. Argues that both the traditional Protestant perspective and the New Perspective on Paul are each partly right, based on the idea that Paul’s ideas on salvation developed as he wrote over a period of time and addressed different circumstances. Review
Paul & the Power of Grace, John M. G. Barclay. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2020. Looks at the theology of Paul through the lens of grace, an unconditioned and incongruous gift for Jew and Gentile alike, personally and socially transformative. Review
Paul, Narrative or Apocalyptic, Christiaan Beker and N.T. Wright. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2023. Essays by two leading N.T. scholars representing the main distinctive views of Paul, either focusing on the age to come and the return of Christ to inaugurate new creation or the narrative continuity with the covenant fulfilled in Christ opening into the inclusion of the Gentiles. Review
An Anomalous Jew, Michael F. Bird. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2016. A collection of studies on the life and ministry of Paul that explores this unusual Jew who is comfortable moving among Greeks and Romans as he proclaims the Christ he encountered on the way to Damascus. Review
The Divine Christology of the Apostle Paul, Chris Bruno, John J. R. Lee, and Thomas R. Schreiner. IVP Academic (ISBN: 9781514001141) 2024. On recent scholarship considering how Paul reconciled monotheism and the divinity of Jesus. Review
The Apocalyptic Paul: Retrospect and Prospect(Cascade Library of Pauline Studies), Jamie Davies, Foreword by John Barclay. Eugene: Cascade Books, 2022. A survey of the major contributors to the Apocalyptic Paul movement within Pauline studies, as well as a discussion of some outstanding areas for discussion and proposals of bringing biblical scholars in the Apocalyptic Paul movement, theologians focusing on apocalyptic, and those studying the Jewish apocalyptic tradition into conversation. Review
Who Created Christianity?, Craig A. Evans and Aaron W. White, editors. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2020. Summary: A festschrift in honor of David Wenham focused around the centerpiece of Wenham’s theology, the relationship between Jesus and Paul and Wenham’s insistence that Paul was not the founder of Christianity but a disciple of Jesus. Review
Participating in Christ, Michael J. Gorman. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2019. A discussion of what it means to be “in” Christ, or to participate in Christ, drawing from the Pauline letters, and particularly what this means for living a cross-shaped and resurrection-infused life by which one becomes increasingly like Christ and God. Review
Paul and the Language of Faith, Nijay K, Gupta (Foreword by James D. G. Dunn). Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2020. A study of the word pistis, often translated as “faith” as used in the writings of Paul, the rest of scripture, as well as in literature contemporary to the time, showing the rich nuances of meaning that must be determined by context. Review
God and the Faithfulness of Paul, Christoph Heilig, J. Thomas Hewitt, and Michael F. Bird, eds. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2017. A collection of papers assessing N. T. Wright’s Paul and the Faithfulness of Godby scholars from a number of fields of theological study, with a concluding response from N. T. Wright. Review
The Apostle and the Empire, Christoph Heilig (foreword by John M. G. Barclay). Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2022. Focusing on 2 Corinthians 2:14, Heilig argues for an alternative to either hidden or unexpressed criticism of the empire in Paul’s writings, proposing that we might also consider texts that have been overlooked. Review
Paul and Time, L Ann Jervis. Baker Academic (iSBN: 9781540960788), 2023. A proposal that believers live, not at the intersection the present time and the age to come, but that we have been delivered from the present evil age to live in Christ, including living in his time. Review
Pauline Theology as a Way of Life, Joshua W. Jipp. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2023. A study of Paul’s theology as an invitation to a flourishing life through participation in Christ, observing parallels and contrasts with both ancient philosophy and modern positive psychology. Review
Perspectives on Paul: Five Views, Edited by Scot McKnight and B.J. Oropeza. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2020. Presents five perspectives on the ministry and message of Paul: the Catholic, traditional Protestant, the “New Perspective” pioneered by E.P. Sanders, the Paul within Judaism perspective, and the Gift perspective. Review
The Glory of God and Paul(New Studies in Biblical Theology #58), Christopher W. Morgan and Robert A. Peterson. Downers Grove and London: IVP Academic and Apollos, 2022. (Link to UK publisher) A study of the theme of the glory of God in scripture, with a particular focus on the writings of Paul. Review
Paul, a New Covenant Jew, Brant Pitre, Michael P. Barber, John A. Kincaid (Foreword by Michael J. Gorman). Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2019. In answer to the question of “what kind of Jew was Paul?”, three Catholic scholars, focusing on 2 Corinthians 3:2-16, argue that he was a new covenant Jew and then relate this idea to apocalyptic, Christology, atonement, justification, and the Lord’s supper. Review
Paul Behaving Badly, E. Randolph Richards and Brandon J. O’Brien. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2016. Takes on the charge that there are many problems with Paul, among which that he is racist, pro-slavery, anti-woman, homophobic, and hypocritical, and suggests that while he behaves badly, it may be in different ways than we might think. Review
Paul: Follower of Jesus or Founder of Christianity, David Wenham. Grand Rapids: Wm B. Eerdmans, 1995 (out of print). A study of the relationship of Pauline thought to the teachings of Jesus by a comprehensive effort to compare them on a number of major themes. Review
Voices and Views on Paul: Exploring Scholarly Trends, Ben Witherington III and Jason A. Myers. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2020. A discussion and analysis of recent Pauline scholarship focusing on E.P. Sanders, James D.G. Dunn, N.T. Wright, John Barclay, Stephen Chester, and Louis Martyn. Review
Into the Heart of Romans, N.T. Wright. Zondervan Academic (ISBN: 9780310157748), 2023. Summary: A close reading of Romans 8, focusing on the purpose, presence, and profound love in Christ for all who believe meant to assure them of not only their ultimate destiny but of God’s favor even as they share in the sufferings of Christ amid a groaning creation. Review
Paul: A Biography, N. T. Wright. New York: Harper One, 2018. Wright translates his scholarship that gives a “new account” of Paul’s life into a popular biography, tracing the life and thought of the apostle through the letters he wrote and narrative of his journeys. Review
I plan to add to this list as I review additional titles in Pauline studies. I will include the most recent revision date at the bottom of this post.
Paul and Time, L Ann Jervis. Baker Academic (iSBN: 9781540960788), 2023.
Summary: A proposal that believers live, not at the intersection and the age to come, but that we have been delivered from the present evil age to live in Christ, including living in his time.
We understand time in the light of Christ’s saving work. We understand that Christ’s coming inaugurated “the age to come” That age will reach its telos when Christ returns. Some explain it in terms of already and not yet. Others use the analogy of living between D-Day, the decisive battle of World War II and V-Day, the final victory. Those who believe live in an overlap of the ages.
L. Ann Jervis argues that this is not Paul’s view of time. For her, there is no overlap. Either we live in this present evil age, what she calls “death-time” or we live in Christ, in the time of the crucified, risen and exalted Son. She calls this “life-time.”
She begins with the two most popular approaches to Paul, the salvation historical or the more recent apocalyptic. While they differ in whether Christ represents fulfillment or he represents an in-breaking, both have in common the two age idea. She challenges this, arguing that believers live exclusively in Christ. They live in a time or temporality distinct from the present evil age, the temporality of Christ.
Christ’s time is different in at least two ways. As risen Lord, it is a time of life without end, that begins for the believer when they believe. Death is only a transition in that life. Hence, she calls this “life-time.” It is also different because it is in God, for whom past, present, and future are not discrete or sequential. Hence we experience both his past sufferings and anticipate resurrection in our present. The future only reveals the present of Christ’s life, already present to us. Jervis demonstrates this in studies of 1 Corinthians 15 and Romans 8, showing that what is chronologically future for us is in the present in Christ’s victory and glory.
Finally, she addresses the implications of this idea for how we understand sin, suffering, and death. She argues that for believers, these are not symptoms of a yet to be vanquished evil age, but are transformed by those who are in Christ. She writes:
“This knowledge has an existential power–believers can live in the embrace of transformative hope. Hope for Paul is the capacity through faith to be aware of what is. Believers’ knowledge that God through Christ shares God’s time and life with them means life now is transfused with the God-given capacity to hope and so to see the glory that is and will be forever….Lives lived without fear of physical death, in awareness that sinning is not obligatory and that suffering is in company with Christ, promise to be lives of creative and healing love for all” (p. 163).
Jervis challenges us to not reframe Paul’s “in Christ” language that so dominates his thought into a two age framework. She offers an approach that seems truer to Paul’s language. She denies we are in a battle with Satan or the powers who have been defeated in Christ, a point at which I would differ. I contend that even in her framework, we participate in Christ’s victory through battle, just as we do through suffering.
Jervis offers a fresh paradigm worth consideration and development. She proclaims a liberty and victory for believers in this present life instead of making concessions to the enemy. Jervis reminds us of what a powerful truth it is to say we are “in Christ.” She does this with concision and clarity in writing that is a pleasure to read. I look forward to reading more of this theologian!
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Disclosure of Material Connection: I received a complimentary copy of this book from the publisher for review.
The Apostle and the Empire, Christoph Heilig (foreword by John M. G. Barclay). Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2022.
Summary: Focusing on 2 Corinthians 2:14, Heilig argues for an alternative to either hidden or unexpressed criticism of the empire in Paul’s writings, proposing that we might also consider texts that have been overlooked.
Until N. T. Wright, most commentators on the Pauline works considered Paul to be silent on or even supportive of the Roman empire. Wright changed that with an article in 2000, “Paul’s Gospel and Caesar’s Empire,” proposing that subtexts could be found in Paul’s writing of an anti-imperial nature, referred to as hidden subtexts. John M. G. Barclay responded with a critique outlining five necessary conditions that would need to be met to accept Wright’s hypothesis that Wright answered in a chapter of Paul and the Faithfulness of God in 2013. A more recent paper by Laura Robinson questions the “hidden subtext” idea proposing that they are not hidden but just are not there, and that the concerns evoked by Wright about surveillance by the empire were unwarranted.
In this work, Heilig seeks to move the discussion to a new place. In addition to challenging Robinson’s assessment of the dangers Christians faced, invoking for example, the Pliny-Trajan correspondence, and the troubles Paul actually found himself in, he proposes the idea that Paul’s criticism is not so much hidden as perhaps, at least in some passages, overlooked. After mentioning passages like 1 Corinthians 2:6 and 1 Thessalonians 3:3, he focuses much of this monograph on 2 Corinthians 2:14:
But thanks be to God, who always leads us as captives in Christ’s triumphal procession and uses us to spread the aroma of the knowledge of him everywhere.
2 Corinthians 2:14, NIV.
A significant part of Heilig’s argument, overlooked in most commentaries, is the contemporary context of the victory procession of Claudius in 44 AD, celebrating his victory over Britannia. The Corinthians actually had an emperor cult that celebrated this victory. References to a triumphal procession would readily evoke this event in the minds of the Corinthians, not simply a general military practice. He explores the challenge to empire implicit in the reference God leading this procession, spreading the knowledge of the victory of Christ. Heilig argues that this, at very least expresses a sense of “unease” with the empire. He also suggests that this may be found even in the “clearest” of the passages on the empire, Romans 13:1-7, although I am surprised the author does not explore the standards for the just exercise of power implied in these passages, that is an implicit judgment against the much more arbitrary exercise of “the sword” in actuality.
In the last chapter before the conclusion, he decries the woeful state of access to the most current scholarship on context for biblical commentators, illustrated by the “overlooked” material on Claudius. I felt that, while this may be valid, I would have been more greatly helped by a discussion of further research along the lines of this work, and at least a preliminary overview of other passages where he thought criticism may have been overlooked rather than hidden.
That said, I do think this proposal offers new ground for work on Paul’s unease with empire and the realities faced by early Christians navigating Roman society, one that recognizes both Paul’s courage and discretion.
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Disclosure of Material Connection: I received a complimentary review copy of this book from the publisher.
